Intelligence

Citation: Huitt, W. (2002). Intelligence. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date], from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/intell.html

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I. Overview

E. G. Boring, a well-known Harvard psychologist in the 1920's defined intelligence as whatever intelligence tests measure. Wechsler, one of the most influential researchers in the area of intelligence defined it as the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his/her environment. Notice that there is a conative aspect to this definition. Many modern psychology textbooks would accept a working definition of intelligence as the general ability to perform cognitive tasks. Others might favor a more behaviorally-oriented definition such as the capacity to learn from experience or the capacity to adapt to one's environment. Sternberg has combined these two viewpoints into the following: Intelligence is the cognitive ability of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, to remember important information, and to cope with the demands of daily living.

B. Approaches to study

1. Concept (broad vs. narrow)

2. Operational (verbal vs. non-verbal, ability to learn, etc.)

C. Developmental influences

1. Nature (biology) -- nervous system functioning, gender, genetics

2. Nurture (environmental) -- parents education and social class, rural vs urban/suburban, ethnic, education/schooling; the Flynn effect

II. Alternate perspectives

A. Overview

B. Psychometric (see Gardner, 1999 for overview)

1. Galton, Binet, Spearman (early 1900s), Wechsler, Guilford

2. Focus on structure

3. Based on an assumption of the normal distribution of the construct of intelligence (see graphic below)

C. Learning

a. Thorndike, Watson

b. focus on malleability (function)

D. Cognitive

1. Information Processing (interested in how people mentally represent and process information)

a. Spearman (1920s)

b. Modern

(1) Newell, Shaw & Simon (1958)

(2) Miller, Galanter & Pribam (1960)

(3) Feurerstein (1978) -- Instrumental Enrichment

2. Piaget (described as process of adaptation; focus on development)

E. Systems Theories

1. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory (Sternberg, 1994)

Sternberg believes that intelligence is comprised of three separate, though interrelated abilities: analytical, creative, and practical.

Abilities of Intelligence
Analytical	try to solve familiar problems by using strategies that manipulate the elements of a problem or the relationship among the elements (e.g., comparing, analyzing)
Creative	try to solve new kinds of problems that require us to think about the problem and its elements in a new way (e.g., inventing, designing)
Practical	try to solve problems that apply what we know to everyday contexts (e.g., applying, using)

Sternberg hypothesizes that intelligence relates to, and is demonstrated in, three different aspects: (1) the internal world of information processing, (2) experience and past learning, and (3) the external world of adapting to, shaping and selecting real-world environments.

The components of intelligence describes the structure of cognitive processes that are used to adapt to, shape, or select real-world environments.
 

Components of Intelligence (Internal World)
Metacomponents	higher-order mental processes used in planning, monitoring, and evaluating performance of a task; these are "executive" functions guide the use of other components
Performance components	mental processes used in the performance of a task; probably best measured by current intelligence tests
Knowledge-Acquisition components	mental processes used in learning

Intelligence is demonstrated in two complimentary ways: a person's ability to deal with novelty or new aspects on one's environment and how quickly one make new information processing automatic.
 

Intelligence and Prior Knowledge (Experience and Past Learning)
Dealing with Novelty	intelligence is the ability to learn and think within new conceptual systems, which can then be brought to bear upon already existing knowledge
Automatizing Information Processing	complex verbal, mathematical, and other tasks can feasibly be executed only because many of the operations involved in their performance have been automatized

Intelligence is not only one's ability to adapt to one's environment; it also includes changing that environment or selecting a new one.
 

Dealing With Real-world Contexts (External World)
Adapting to	Sometimes one displays one's intelligence by demonstrating an ability to adapt to the situation or context one finds oneself in. This is the primary aspect of intelligence that is considered by psychometricians, learning theorists, and other cognitivists such as Piaget
Shaping	Sometimes it is necessary to demonstrate one's intelligence by shaping or changing the environment so that it better meets one's needs. Vygotsky and dynamical systems theorists focus on this aspect of intelligence.
Selecting	There are times when it is necessary to demonstrate one's intelligence by selecting an alternate environment or context within which to live and work. Not all environments should be adapted to and some are not worth trying to change.

In my opinion, one of the most important parts of Sternberg's work on intelligence is his Adaptive Behavior Checklist. Because he considers intelligence as a set of skills, each of the behaviors on the checklist is considered modifiable. Which of these have we been working on in this class? Which of these have you worked on in other college-level courses? Which of these do you work on in classes you teach?

Sternberg's Adaptive Behavior Checklist
Practical Problem-Solving Ability	Reasons logically and well Identifies connections among ideas Sees all aspects of a problem Keeps an open mind and responds thoughtfully to others' ideas Sizes up situations well Gets to the heart of problems Interprets information accurately Makes good decisions Goes to original sources for basic information Poses problems in an optimal way Is a good source of ideas Perceives implied assumptions and conclusions Deals with problems resourcefully
Verbal Ability	Speaks clearly and articulately and is verbally fluent Converses well Is knowledgeable about a particular area of subject matter Studies hard Reads widely with high comprehension Writes without difficulty Sets aside time for reading Displays good vocabulary
Social Competence	Accepts others for what they are Admits mistakes Displays interest in the world at large Is on time for appointments Has social conscience Thinks before speaking and doing Makes fair judgments Assesses well the relevance of information to a problem at hand Is sensitive to other people's needs and desires Displays interest in the immediate environment

Sternberg recognizes that intelligence is only one explanation of why some people succeed and why others do not. These reasons have been arranged in terms of Huitt's Systems Model of Human Behavior? What are some benefits of this arrangement with respect to helping you learn and remember these reasons? Do you agree with the classification scheme? How would you modify it?

Sternberg's Beliefs About Why Intelligent People Fail
Cognitive-Oriented Reasons	Distractibility and lack of concentration Spreading oneself too thin or too thick Inability or unwillingness to see the forest for the trees Lack of balance between critical, analytic thinking and creative, synthetic thinking Using the wrong abilities
Affective/Socially- Oriented Reasons	Misattribution of blame Fear of failure Excessive self-pity Excessive dependency Wallowing in personal difficulties Too little or too much self-confidence
Conative/Volitionally- Oriented Reasons	Failure to initiate Lack of motivation Lack of perservance and perseveration Inability to complete tasks and to follow through Lack of impulse control Inability to translate thought into action Procrastination Lack of product orientation Inability to delay gratification

2.. Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory

Definition: A human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving--enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product--and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems--thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge. (Gardner, 1983, p. 62, emphasis in the original)

Criteria for Establishing Distinct Intelligences:

1. Isolation by brain damage
2. The existence of individuals with exceptional talent
3. A distinct developmental history
4. An evolutionary history
5. A set of core operations
6. Experimental evidence
7. Encoding in a symbol system

Another way to group these intelligences is:

• Symbol manipulation--Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, and Musical
• Person-related--Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Existential
• Object-related--Spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic, and Naturalist

References:

• Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic.
• Gardner, H. (1999, February). Who owns intelligence? The Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved: August 2002, from http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/99feb/intel.htm.
• Smith, M. (2002) Howard Gardner and multiple intelligences. the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved February 2005, from  http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm.
• Sternberg, R. (1994). In search of the human mind (395-396). New York: Harcourt Brace.

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